Week 9: Doubly-Robust Estimation and Instrumental Variables

DSAN 5650: Causal Inference for Computational Social Science
Summer 2026, Georgetown University

Jeff Jacobs

jj1088@georgetown.edu

Wednesday, July 15, 2026

Schedule

Today’s Planned Schedule:

	Start	End	Topic
Lecture	6:30pm	6:45pm	Final Project Tings →
	6:45pm	7:20pm	Double Robustness →
	7:20pm	8:00pm	When Conditioning Won’t Cut It: IVs →
Break!	8:00pm	8:10pm
	8:10pm	9:00pm	Drawing Causal Inferences from Text Data →

\[ \DeclareMathOperator*{\argmax}{argmax} \DeclareMathOperator*{\argmin}{argmin} \newcommand{\bigexp}[1]{\exp\mkern-4mu\left[ #1 \right]} \newcommand{\bigexpect}[1]{\mathbb{E}\mkern-4mu \left[ #1 \right]} \newcommand{\definedas}{\overset{\small\text{def}}{=}} \newcommand{\definedalign}{\overset{\phantom{\text{defn}}}{=}} \newcommand{\eqeventual}{\overset{\text{eventually}}{=}} \newcommand{\Err}{\text{Err}} \newcommand{\expect}[1]{\mathbb{E}[#1]} \newcommand{\expectsq}[1]{\mathbb{E}^2[#1]} \newcommand{\fw}[1]{\texttt{#1}} \newcommand{\given}{\mid} \newcommand{\green}[1]{\color{green}{#1}} \newcommand{\heads}{\outcome{heads}} \newcommand{\iid}{\overset{\text{\small{iid}}}{\sim}} \newcommand{\lik}{\mathcal{L}} \newcommand{\loglik}{\ell} \DeclareMathOperator*{\maximize}{maximize} \DeclareMathOperator*{\minimize}{minimize} \newcommand{\mle}{\textsf{ML}} \newcommand{\nimplies}{\;\not\!\!\!\!\implies} \newcommand{\orange}[1]{\color{orange}{#1}} \newcommand{\outcome}[1]{\textsf{#1}} \newcommand{\param}[1]{{\color{purple} #1}} \newcommand{\pgsamplespace}{\{\green{1},\green{2},\green{3},\purp{4},\purp{5},\purp{6}\}} \newcommand{\pedge}[2]{\require{enclose}\enclose{circle}{~{#1}~} \rightarrow \; \enclose{circle}{\kern.01em {#2}~\kern.01em}} \newcommand{\pnode}[1]{\require{enclose}\enclose{circle}{\kern.1em {#1} \kern.1em}} \newcommand{\ponode}[1]{\require{enclose}\enclose{box}[background=lightgray]{{#1}}} \newcommand{\pnodesp}[1]{\require{enclose}\enclose{circle}{~{#1}~}} \newcommand{\purp}[1]{\color{purple}{#1}} \newcommand{\sign}{\text{Sign}} \newcommand{\spacecap}{\; \cap \;} \newcommand{\spacewedge}{\; \wedge \;} \newcommand{\tails}{\outcome{tails}} \newcommand{\Var}[1]{\text{Var}[#1]} \newcommand{\bigVar}[1]{\text{Var}\mkern-4mu \left[ #1 \right]} \]

Final Project Tings

• MVP vs. non-MVP

Double Robustness

• Propensity Score Weighting seems so much easier than all the hard work of modeling… why can’t we just propensity score all the things and be done with it!?
• By using doubly-robust estimation methods, you can:
  • Carefully develop a covariate adjustment strategy (then use e.g. regression),
  • Carefully develop a propensity score strategy, and then
  • Be only as wrong as the least-wrong of and !!

With doubly-robust estimation, as long as the answer is either True or False you’re good!

Doubly-Robust Estimation

import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import seaborn as sns

import statsmodels.formula.api as smf
from causalml.match import create_table_one
from joblib import Parallel, delayed
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression

def generate_data(N=300, seed=1):
  np.random.seed(seed)
  
  # Control variables
  male = np.random.binomial(1, 0.45, N)
  age = np.rint(18 + np.random.beta(2, 2, N)*50)
  hours = np.minimum(np.round(np.random.lognormal(5, 1.3, N), 1), 2000)
  
  # Treatment
  pr = np.maximum(0, np.minimum(1, 0.8 + 0.3*male - np.sqrt(age-18)/10))
  dark_mode = np.random.binomial(1, pr, N)==1
  
  # Outcome
  read_time = np.round(np.random.normal(10 - 4*male + 2*np.log(hours) + 2*dark_mode, 4, N), 1)

  # Generate the dataframe
  df = pd.DataFrame({'read_time': read_time, 'dark_mode': dark_mode, 'male': male, 'age': age, 'hours': hours})

  return df

user_df = generate_data(N=300)
ols_model = smf.ols("read_time ~ dark_mode", data=user_df).fit()
ols_summary = ols_model.summary()
results_as_html = ols_summary.tables[1].as_html()
print(results_as_html)

# ols_summary_df = pd.read_html(results_as_html, header=0, index_col=0)[0]
# ols_summary_df[['coef','std err']]
# #type(ols_summary.tables[1])[['coef','std err']]
# # .tables[1]
# # ols_df[['coef','std err']]

Super cool example courtesy of Matteo Courthoud!

<table class="simpletable">
<tr>
          <td></td>             <th>coef</th>     <th>std err</th>      <th>t</th>      <th>P>|t|</th>  <th>[0.025</th>    <th>0.975]</th>  
</tr>
<tr>
  <th>Intercept</th>         <td>   19.1748</td> <td>    0.402</td> <td>   47.661</td> <td> 0.000</td> <td>   18.383</td> <td>   19.967</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <th>dark_mode[T.True]</th> <td>   -0.4446</td> <td>    0.571</td> <td>   -0.779</td> <td> 0.437</td> <td>   -1.568</td> <td>    0.679</td>
</tr>
</table>

• …So, is this a causal effect? Does dark theme cause users to spend less time reading?

Unit of Observation: (Article, Reader)

(…since I couldn’t figure out how to fit it on the last slide)

user_df.head()

	read_time	dark_mode	male	age	hours
0	14.4	False	0	43.0	65.6
1	15.4	False	1	55.0	125.4
2	20.9	True	0	23.0	642.6
3	20.0	False	0	41.0	129.1
4	21.5	True	0	29.0	190.2

What Does the Data Look Like?

#ax = pw.Brick(figsize=(8,5))
sns.pairplot(
  data=user_df, aspect=0.8
)

Balance

Enter Uber’s causal inference library: causalml

from IPython.display import display, HTML
X = ['male', 'age', 'hours']
table1 = create_table_one(user_df, 'dark_mode', X)
user_df.to_csv("assets/user_df.csv")
table1.to_csv("assets/table1.csv")
HTML(table1.to_html())

	Control	Treatment	SMD
Variable
n	151	149
age	46.01 (9.79)	39.09 (11.53)	-0.6469
hours	337.78 (464.00)	328.57 (442.12)	-0.0203
male	0.34 (0.47)	0.66 (0.48)	0.6732

And then WeightIt to generate a “love plot”:

Augmented Inverse Propensity Weighting (AIPW)

\[ \begin{align*} \hat \tau_{AIPW} &= \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^{n} \left( \text{RegEst}(X_i) + \text{PropensityAdj}(X_i, Y_i) \right) \\ \text{RegEst}(X_i) &= \hat \mu^{(1)}(X_i) - \hat \mu^{(0)}(X_i) \\ \text{PropensityAdj}(X_i, Y_i) &= \frac{D_i}{\hat{\mathtt{e}}(X_i)} \left( Y_i - \hat \mu^{(1)}(X_i) \right) - \frac{(1-D_i) }{1-\hat{\mathtt{e}}(X_i)} \left( Y_i - \hat \mu^{(0)}(X_i) \right) \end{align*} \]

where \(\mu^{(d)}(x)\) is the response function, i.e. the expected value of the outcome, conditional on observable characteristics \(x\) and treatment status \(d\), and \(e(X)\) is the propensity score.

\[ \begin{align*} \mu^{(d)}(x) &= \mathbb E \left[ Y_i \ \big | \ X_i = x, D_i = d \right] \\ \mathtt{e}(x) &= \mathbb E \left[ D_i = 1 \ \big | \ X_i = x \right] \end{align*} \]

Model 1: Propensity Score

def estimate_e(df, X, D, model_e):
    e = model_e.fit(df[X], df[D]).predict_proba(df[X])[:,1]
    return e
user_df['e'] = estimate_e(user_df, X, "dark_mode", LogisticRegression())
fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(7,2.75))
sns.kdeplot(
  x='e', hue='dark_mode', data=user_df,
  # bins=30,
  #stat='density',
  common_norm=False,
  fill=True,
  ax=ax
);
ax.set_xlabel("$e(X)$");

w = 1 / (user_df['e'] * user_df["dark_mode"] + (1-user_df['e']) * (1-user_df["dark_mode"]))
smf.wls("read_time ~ dark_mode", weights=w, data=user_df).fit().summary().tables[1]

	coef	std err	t	P>|t|	[0.025	0.975]
Intercept	18.5871	0.412	45.158	0.000	17.777	19.397
dark_mode[T.True]	1.0486	0.581	1.805	0.072	-0.095	2.192

Model 2: Regression with Controls

• First, with scikit-learn:

def estimate_mu(df, X, D, y, model_mu):
    mu = model_mu.fit(df[X + [D]], df[y])
    mu0 = mu.predict(df[X + [D]].assign(dark_mode=0))
    mu1 = mu.predict(df[X + [D]].assign(dark_mode=1))
    return mu0, mu1
from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression

mu0, mu1 = estimate_mu(user_df, X, "dark_mode", "read_time", LinearRegression())
print(np.mean(mu0), np.mean(mu1))
print(np.mean(mu1-mu0))

18.265714409803316 19.651524322951015
1.3858099131476969

• Enter EconML, Microsoft’s “Official” ML-based econometrics library 😎

from econml.dr import LinearDRLearner

model = LinearDRLearner(
  model_propensity=LogisticRegression(),
  model_regression=LinearRegression(),
  random_state=5650
)
model.fit(Y=user_df["read_time"], T=user_df["dark_mode"], X=user_df[X]);
model.ate_inference(X=user_df[X].values, T0=0, T1=1).summary().tables[0]

Uncertainty of Mean Point Estimate

mean_point	stderr_mean	zstat	pvalue	ci_mean_lower	ci_mean_upper
1.321	0.549	2.409	0.016	0.246	2.396

Double-Robustness to the Rescue!

Wrong regression model:

def compare_estimators(X_e, X_mu, D, y, seed):
    df = generate_data(seed=seed)
    e = estimate_e(df, X_e, D, LogisticRegression())
    mu0, mu1 = estimate_mu(df, X_mu, D, y, LinearRegression())
    slearn = mu1 - mu0
    ipw = (df[D] / e - (1-df[D]) / (1-e)) * df[y]
    aipw = slearn + df[D] / e * (df[y] - mu1) - (1-df[D]) / (1-e) * (df[y] - mu0)
    return np.mean((slearn, ipw, aipw), axis=1)

def simulate_estimators(X_e, X_mu, D, y):
    r = Parallel(n_jobs=8)(delayed(compare_estimators)(X_e, X_mu, D, y, i) for i in range(100))
    df_tau = pd.DataFrame(r, columns=['S-learn', 'IPW', 'AIPW'])
    return df_tau
# The actual plots
fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(4,3.5))
wrong_reg_df = simulate_estimators(
  X_e=['male', 'age'], X_mu=['hours'], D="dark_mode", y="read_time"
)
wrong_reg_plot = sns.boxplot(
  data=pd.melt(wrong_reg_df), x='variable', y='value', hue='variable',
  ax=ax,
  linewidth=2
);
wrong_reg_plot.set(
  title="Distribution of $\hat τ$", xlabel='', ylabel=''
);
ax.axhline(2, c='r', ls=':');

Wrong propensity score model:

fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(4, 3.5))
wrong_ps_df = simulate_estimators(
  ['age'], ['male', 'hours'], D="dark_mode", y="read_time"
)
wrong_ps_plot = sns.boxplot(
  data=pd.melt(wrong_ps_df), x='variable', y='value', hue='variable',
  ax=ax,
  linewidth=2
);
ax.set_title("Distribution of $\hat τ$");
ax.axhline(2, c='r', ls=':');
plt.show()

Hard Mode: When Conditioning Isn’t an Option / Can’t Fix Things

• Approaches we’ve discussed thus far depend on the ability to adjust for (e.g., by conditioning-on and/or purposefully-not-conditioning-on) confounders themselves (e.g., in regression), or on propensity scores
• Enter Instrumental Variables! (this week), Specification of Mechanisms / Front-Door Pathways (next week)
• \(\leadsto\) Find “natural experiments”, randomizations or pseudo-randomizations in society that allow us to replicate the “holy grail” of random assignment

I… always ask economists why it isn’t explained like this, and they always say “it’s more complicated than that”, and then they explain the complications and I think I understand them but still think that this is a good way to describe the gist!

Instrumental Variable Estimation

Lab: Causal Inference with Text

• Lab Time!

References